Executive Summary
By Dhondup Wangmo, Research Fellow, TPI
Historical Context and Current Situation
Tibet possesses abundant natural resources, with approximately 126 identified mineral types including bauxite, chromite, copper, gold, iron, and silver. Historically, Tibetans maintained a harmonious relationship with their environment, guided by Buddhist principles that viewed mountains, rivers, and lakes as sacred rather than resources for economic exploitation.
Large-scale mining in Tibet began only after China’s invasion. China justifies mining activities as necessary for Tibet’s development and financial growth, but evidence suggests these operations primarily benefit China’s economy while causing environmental degradation and human rights violations in Tibet.
Strategic
Importance of Lithium
Lithium has become a critical resource for the global transition to renewable energy, essential for electric vehicle batteries and reducing carbon emissions. China currently dominates the global lithium market, with Tibet serving as a significant domestic source. Major manufacturers like Tesla and BYD rely heavily on lithium from Tibetan sources.
Tibet’s numerous salt lakes, rich in lithium and other minerals, have become targets for extraction. In 2017, China announced a trial lithium extraction project near Qarhan Salt Lake expected to produce 20,000 tons of battery-grade lithium carbonate annually. In January 2024, China discovered nearly one million tons of lithium resources in Nyagchu County (Yajiang), reportedly the largest pegmatite-type lithium mine in Asia.
Copper Mining Expansion
Four of China’s five largest copper production mines are located in Tibet. The Yulong Mine produced approximately 115,910 tonnes of copper in 2022, while the Pulang and Julong mines produced 98,060 and 87,520 tonnes respectively. Mining operations have intensified, with the Yulong Copper Phase Two project accelerating production from 30,000 tonnes in 2020 to 144,000 tonnes in 2022.
Zijin Mining Group announced plans in February to expand the Julong Copper Mine’s capacity to 350,000 tonnes per day, potentially making it China’s largest standalone copper deposit despite unfavorable environmental conditions and harsh climate in the region.
Impact on Tibetan Communities and Environment
The paper documents several concerning practices:
- Lack of informed consent: Tibetans often only learn about mining operations when Chinese companies arrive for extraction, receiving no prior information or consultation.
- Forced relocation: China’s “extremely high-altitude ecological relocation” policy allegedly serves to forcibly relocate Tibetans from their land, facilitate easier access for mineral exploitation, and prevent local resistance.
- Environmental damage: Mining activities have caused pollution of rivers like the Ganchu River and retreating glaciers at sacred mountains like Amnye Machen.
- Labor practices: There are growing concerns about a labor transfer program in Tibet that shows similarities to programs implemented in Xinjiang, raising questions about voluntary participation and potential coercion.
Legal Framework and Its Limitations
In April 2023, China adopted the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Ecological Protection Law, which supposedly strengthens ecological protection. However, the law lacks clarity on specific requirements for resource development and fails to ensure free, prior, and informed consent of local communities.
Article 33 prohibits mining activities that don’t comply with “ecological protection control requirements” in nature reserves at river sources, but the vague wording appears deliberately designed to allow future mining. Past evidence shows China has modified boundaries of protected areas to allow mining to continue.
Case Study: Tsawo Tsering
The case of Tsawo Tsering illustrates the challenges faced by environmental defenders in Tibet. After sharing video evidence of illegal sandstone mining in Tsaruma that threatened water supplies and caused soil erosion, Tsering was sentenced to eight months in prison in October 2024. Despite multiple appeals to local authorities since 2023, the government dismissed concerns, merely imposing a penalty on the responsible company without stopping the destructive practices.
Conclusion
With expanded mining operations in Tibet, local communities bear the environmental and social costs while China monopolizes profits from extracted resources. China’s claims of bringing modernity and environmental conservation contrast sharply with the reality of ecosystem destruction, forced relocation of Tibetans, and suppression of local voices. The author argues that effective environmental protection requires incorporating indigenous knowledge and respecting the rights of Tibetan communities to participate in decisions affecting their land and resources.
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Full Paper
Mineral Exploitation in Tibet:
The Extraction of Lithium and Copper Resources
Introduction
Tibet is often referred to as the “Water Tower of Asia” and the “Third Pole,” but it is less known globally for its abundant natural resources. Around 126 types of mineral resources have been identified in Tibet, including bauxite, chromite, copper, gold, iron, and silver. Additionally, significant oil, coal, tin, and zinc reserves have been discovered in the Amdo and Utsang regions.[1]
From 1361 to 1485, Thang Thong Gyalpo was probably the first person to use large quantities of iron in bridge construction. During this process, he performed rituals to appease local spirits, respecting their spirituality to avoid any potential harm. This was built because he believed bridges were necessary. It was not constructed for economic development.[2]
This indicates that Tibet’s abundant mineral resources were not exploited for economic purposes, and Tibetans lived in harmony with the environment. This harmonious relationship between humans and the environment stems from Buddhist mentality.
The invasion of Tibet by China has led to significant exploitation of its mineral resources. Large-scale modern mining in Tibet began only after the invasion, and the current environmental status of the region is partly due to China’s lenient mining policies and insufficient attention to environmental concerns.
Before China invaded Tibet, rivers, lakes, and mountains were not used for economic development. Instead, these natural features were considered sacred and kept away from disruption and harm.
Yesterday, it was the Tsaidam Basin, one of the main sites for China’s exploitation in Tibet, and now, this has spread all over Tibet.
Despite more than 20 large-scale mining protests occurring in Tibet over the years, China continues to operate mining activities in the region. This has caused severe damage to air, water, and land quality.[3]
The common justification China gives for mining in Tibet is the development of the Tibetan people and their financial growth. However, evidence supporting this claim is limited, and numerous reports indicate environmental degradation and human rights violations in Tibet because of mining. The intensification of mining in Tibet is not benefiting the Tibetan people; instead, it harms their sentiments, as Tibetans regard the mountains as sacred.
Mining is one of the pillars of China’s economy, generating wealth, increasing employment, providing profits for investors, and generating revenue for the government, all of which benefit China. They have chosen mining as a key component of China’s economic development to secure its resources and strengthen its frontiers.[4]
Among the many objectives claimed by China for building the railway from Gormo to Lhasa, mineral exploitation and easier import of raw materials from Tibet into China are primary aims. Even Chinese experts have acknowledged that constructing this railway will pose ecological challenges. The 550 km railway line must be built on permafrost areas. Additionally, mineral exploitation in these areas will have significant impacts, such as the risk of soil erosion. Furthermore, this will lead to the sinicization of Tibet.[5]
Lithium — Why is it important?
Lithium is one of the most critical metals for a low-carbon future. It is essential for replacing fossil fuels and mitigating global warming. Currently, China dominates the supply of this critical mineral, Lithium, known as “white oil” in the modern world.[6]
Lithium can be sourced from brine or rock. Popular manufacturing companies like BYD and Tesla rely on salt lakes in Tibet and rock lithium from the Kham, formerly part of eastern Tibet.
Lithium is widely used, particularly in electric vehicles and batteries. Numerous reports forecast a significant increase in demand for lithium in the near future. China leads the world in electric vehicle production and dominates the global lithium market. However, it is essential to understand the challenges and environmental implications associated with China’s extensive lithium mining operations.
According to an article titled “China’s monopoly over lithium’s upstream and downstream supply chain,” written by Riddhima Singh, concerns were highlighted over China’s geopolitical leverage as demand for electric vehicle (EV) batteries surges. By 2030, demand for lithium batteries is expected to exceed three million metric tons, raising fears of China’s monopoly being used as a political tool.[7]
What role does Tibet play in China’s energy transition?
Tibet is increasingly related to China’s lithium supply chain due to its significant lithium reserves, making it a key source for China’s lithium projects. As global demand for lithium rises, China has expanded its overseas investments to secure raw materials, but Tibet remains an important domestic source of lithium for these projects.
Gabriel Lafitte’s 2023 report, “Tibet: A New Frontline of the ‘White Gold Rush’ in the Global Race for Renewable Energy,” highlights Tibet’s critical role as a source of raw materials for China’s mining industry. Major manufacturers like Tesla and BYD heavily rely on lithium from Tibet for their battery production.[8]
There are many salt lakes in Tibet, rich in minerals such as lithium and boron. Tibet’s Salt Lake is China’s major source of lithium brine. Soon, China will exploit Tibet’s Salt Lake, just like Drangyer Tsaka (Ch: Zabuye), which has already been exploited. [9]
In December 2017, China announced a trial lithium extraction project near Qarhan Salt Lake in the Haixi Mongolian and Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Qinghai. This project, undertaken by Qinghai Salt Lake Industry Co., is expected to produce 20,000 tons of battery-grade lithium carbonate annually and 30,000 tons of general lithium carbonate.[10]
Overall, on one hand, China claims to be a leader in renewable energy and efforts to reduce carbon emissions for the environment. On the other hand, it is recklessly exploiting Tibet’s environment and violating human rights. Their double standard is evident in this situation.
According to reports by Gabriel, during Xi Jinping’s visit to Qinghai in 2021, he emphasized the importance of boosting lithium extraction. Additionally, Chinese media has reported a rise in the development of domestic lithium sources. Million-dollar bids were taking place for mining sites in eastern Tibet, yet the local Tibetan communities were not informed about what was happening in their own region. [11]
The market economy doesn’t remain the same. If the demand for lithium rises greater than its supply, China will find a way to meet that demand. Tibet could be in great danger because China sources huge tonnes of lithium from Tibet. While China has reported new lithium deposits in Tibet, it has started to exploit lithium resources in Tibet with greater hunger than before.
What is the impact of China’s increasing dominance in the lithium market and its mining activities in Tibet?
The mineral resources in Tibet have become a resource curse for the Tibetan people. China has accelerated mining activities in Tibet without regard for the environmental, social, and cultural ties that have been passed down through generations. Rather than benefiting from mining, Tibetans have faced severe environmental and social destruction. One such mineral resource, lithium, is in high demand and poses a significant threat to Tibet’s ecology. China controls a large portion of the world’s lithium supply, and Tibet is one of its richest sources of extraction.
China has increased exploration activities in Tibet, leading to recent lithium discoveries. In January, nearly one million tons of lithium resources were discovered in Nyagchu County (Ch: Yajiang), located in Sichuan Province. This area is part of Kham, formerly eastern Tibet, now administered by the Kardze Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Sichuan. According to reports, this discovery represents the largest pegmatite-type lithium mine ever found in Asia.[12]
Additionally, on April 7th, 43.2 tons of gold, valued at approximately 20 billion yuan ($2.77 billion), were found in the Tsaidam Basin. This discovery resulted from exploration efforts in the Tinajianshan and Wolonggou areas. With significant reserves uncovered, this site has the potential to become a world-class gold deposit.
The second instance is the increasing stake and acquisitions related to the brine project in Tibet. For example, the purchase of Lakkor Tso for a lithium project serves as a stark reminder of the impending exploitation of Tibet’s lakes.[13] The Tibetan Plateau is considered one of the most concentrated regions of rich salt lakes in the world. This lake has abundant chemical elements, such as lithium, which is an important mineral today. This is just one instance, but as the demand for lithium continues to rise in the future, such activities in Tibet are likely to intensify.
One of China’s prominent mining companies, Zijin, acquired a 70 percent stake in Tibet under the project known as the Lakkor Tso Project. The acquisition occurred on April 29, 2022. This lake, located in Tibet, contains 2.14 million tonnes of lithium carbonate, along with other minerals such as boron, potassium, halite, magnesium salt, rubidium, and cesium. This project has the potential to become the largest lithium salar project in China.
According to Rukor’s blog, there are a few wealthy countries that depend on China for their lithium supply chain. If these countries decide to stop relying on China for their supply chain security, it could have consequences for Tibet. In response, China might increase its exploitation of resources within Tibet, particularly in eastern Tibet, formerly known as the Kham area.[14]
Intensification of copper mining
According to GlobalData’s 2022 mining database, four of China’s five largest copper production mines are located in Tibet. The Yulong Mine had an estimated production of 115.91 thousand tonnes of copper in 2022. Similarly, the Pulang Copper Mine produced approximately 98.06 thousand tonnes, while the Julong Copper Mine produced about 87.52 thousand tonnes in the same year. Significant copper production is also occurring in Gyama. As the demand for copper continues to rise, the exploitation and mining of copper in Tibet are expected to increase, potentially leading to far-reaching social and environmental consequences.
Mining activities in Tibet have intensified over the past few decades, highlighted by the commencement of the Yulong Copper Phase Two project in 2020. Located in Jomda County of Chamdo Prefecture, the implementation of Phase Two accelerated copper production from 30,000 tonnes in 2020 to 125,000 tonnes in 2021, reaching 144,000 tonnes in 2022.
Zijin Mining Group Co., Ltd., a company with significant resources and assets in Tibet, including a stake in China’s second-largest Yulong copper mine, recently announced plans on February 22 to expand the Julong Copper Mine’s second phase in Tibet. In addition to the existing mining and processing project of 150,000 tonnes per day, this expansion will introduce a new production capacity of 200,000 tonnes per day, resulting in a combined output of 350,000 tonnes per day. The Tibet Autonomous Region Development and Reform Commission approved the second phase of the Julong copper mine’s expansion. Reports indicate that upon reaching its designated capacity in Phase Two, this mine is set to produce an annual ore output exceeding 100 million tonnes, making it China’s largest standalone copper deposit. However, the environmental conditions in the mining areas have been described as unfavorable and characterized by harsh climates.
Tibet Julong Copper Co., Ltd. was established in 2006, primarily managing the Qulong copper mine. On June 7, 2020, Zijin Mining Group Co., Ltd. announced that it was acquiring a majority stake of 50.1 percent in Tibet Julong.
The areas around Lhasa have been found to contain numerous copper mines, and it is expected that substantial mining operations will be established in these regions in the coming years. This could potentially transform Lhasa into a hub for mining activities.
The reality of China’s mining operation in Tibet
The first instance is the discovery of significant lithium deposits in Tibet, particularly in the Kham region. China has already exploited lithium mining in this area, but they continue to seek further extraction. A recent finding revealed nearly one million tons of lithium resources in January, highlighting China’s relentless pursuit of these minerals to fuel its economic development. Meanwhile, Tibetans remain largely unaware of what is occurring in their land.
Tibetans only became aware of the mining activities in their regions when Chinese companies arrived for extraction. They received no prior information and had no say in the matter. This lack of engagement has left Tibetans uninformed about the developments taking place in their territory.
A recent report from the International Campaign for Tibet on China’s Derge Dam region highlighted China’s deceptive methods to remove Tibetans from their land forcefully. According to the report, China’s ‘extremely high-altitude ecological relocation’ policy initiatives are not aimed at ecological conservation. Instead, this policy has been used under pretenses for three reasons: first, to forcibly relocate Tibetans from their land; second, to facilitate easier access for exploiting mineral resources; and third, to prevent Tibetans from impeding the extraction of valuable natural resources. [15]
In a recent video shared by Tibet Times, the glaciers of Amnye Machen, a sacred mountain in Tibet, are retreating at 17 meters per year. At the same time, the Ganchu River, flowing near copper mining areas in Machen County, has been polluted due to excessive mineral exploitation, and the Tibet Times, based in Dharamsala, reported that this excessive mining has posed a significant threat to sacred snow mountains and the local ecology. According to them, mining in the areas is still ongoing. [16]
This is how China’s mining activities in Tibet have destroyed the region’s mountains and traditional livelihoods.
There is a labor transfer program in Tibet that is similar to what occurred earlier in Xinjiang with the Uyghurs. However, there is no evidence to suggest that the labor transfer program in Tibet is identical to that practiced in Xinjiang. Nonetheless, there are some similarities and frameworks, such as the term “Tifa,” which is used as a euphemism for forced labor transfer. Additionally, the policy involves village cadres going door-to-door to recruit villagers. During this recruitment process, there are growing concerns about the voluntary participation of villagers. These processes often involve coercion, where villagers feel pressured to agree despite wanting to say no.[17]
In the near future, there is a high chance that Tibetans will be forced into labor transfer, similar to what has happened in Xinjiang.
The Zijian mining group has exported 30 laborers to Medrogungkar (Ch: Maizhokunggar) County. According to reports, this labor export was coordinated with the Medrogungkar County government and the Human Resource and Social Security Bureau. Additionally, Julong, along with Tibet Huatailong and the Choking Village Party Committee, was involved in the labor transfer. Major companies in China, such as Zijian Mining and Gold International Group, have recruited Tibetans through state-initiated policies for poverty alleviation and labor transfer. However, there is a lack of transparency regarding how Tibetans were recruited for this labor transfer, raising concerns about the high chances of forced labor in Tibet.
On April 26, 2023, the Standing Committee of the Fourteenth National People’s Congress in Beijing adopted a new law called the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Ecological Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China, which began functioning on September 1, 2023.[18]
According to Article 19, The relevant departments of the State Council and the relevant local people’s governments shall strengthen ecological protection and restoration efforts in the Three-River Source area, carry out systematic protection and zoning and classification management of national parks established in accordance with the law, adopt scientific measures such as grazing bans and closures, increase efforts to control degraded grasslands, degraded wetlands, and desertified land and prevent soil and water loss, and comprehensively improve severely degraded land; strictly prohibit all kinds of resource development and utilization activities that damage ecological functions or do not meet the requirements of differentiated management and control.[19]
This article clearly asserts the need to control resource development and utilization activities that damage ecological functions. However, it lacks clarity on the specific requirements that must be met. The law does not ensure the free, prior, and informed consent of local communities, often referred to as rights holders, who are undervalued in this process.[20]
Similarly, Article 33 of the law prohibits sand mining and other mining activities that do not comply with ecological protection control requirements in nature reserves at the sources of rivers such as the Yangtze River, Yellow River, Lancang River, Yarlung Zangbo River, and Nu River. However, keeping the requirements unclear is a deliberate move by China to encourage future mining in Tibet. If they wanted, they could fully prohibit mining.[21]
A similar incident happened in Tibet before, at the source of three rivers, the Yellow, Yangtze, and Mekong. This source area was indeed kept under the protected areas to conserve the watershed; however, they didn’t stop the mining. For mining to continue even in protected areas, they have modified the boundaries out from areas of protection. This shows how China’s exploitation of Tibet’s resources can be done at any cost, even if it means damaging ecologically significant areas.[22]
In “Spoiling Tibet,” Gabriel Lafitte highlights the complex dynamics regarding mining operations in Tibet, particularly in the context of local communities like those in Gartampa Village. The case that happened in 2006 illustrates how the Tibetan people faced severe repercussions for speaking out against environmental degradation caused by mining. The threats of arrest and the detention of the village leader reflect a suppression and lack of transparency in these activities. The relationships between mine contractors and local authorities reveal a system of corruption and bribery, undermining the interests of the local population. For the Tibetan herders, whose livelihoods depend on healthy grasslands and livestock, the degradation of their environment poses significant challenges, directly impacting their way of life. This situation underscores the need for greater accountability from China and respect towards the voices of Tibetans. Their rights should be acknowledged.[23]
Case study of Tsawo Tsering
There have been several case studies where Tibetan environmental protectors were silenced despite their sincere appeals to the government to stop illegal mining.
The video message shared by Tsawo Tsering on 15 October 2024 indicates that China’s government policies on mining are merely for show, with no effective on-ground implementation.[24]
On October 27, 2024, Tsawo Tsering was sentenced to eight months in prison after he shared a video of illegal sandstone mining in Tsaruma (Ch: Chaerma), Chungchu (Ch: Hongyuan) County, Ngawa (Ch: Aba) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan Province. The illegal mining had been taking place in his area since 2023, posing a threat to the water supply and causing soil erosion. Since 2023, he and other residents have approached the local government through multiple appeals. However, the government has dismissed the case, citing a penalty imposed on Anhui Xianhe Construction Engineering Company, which is responsible for the illegal mining.
The Chinese government’s removal of videos shared by Tibetans, like Tsowo Tsering, has made it difficult for the public to fully grasp the reality of sand mining and its harmful effects in Tsaruma, Tibet. This effort to suppress information undermines the government’s claims of environmental protection and community engagement in Tibet. Despite Tsowo Tsering and other locals approaching the Chinese authorities with evidence of damage to riverbeds from sand mining in their hometown of Tsaruma, located in Chungchu County (within the Ngawa Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Sichuan Province), the authorities have yet to take action to restore the ecosystem.
The response to these Tibetans’ appeals, especially in the case of Tsaruma, highlights a broader issue of non-transparency, lack of community engagement, and a systemic pattern of repression, including the censorship of social media. The affected Tibetans, who are directly impacted by the mining, remain largely uninformed about the mining activities taking place in their area. This recent incident, reported by Tibet Watch, exposes China’s ongoing illegal mining practices and the government’s indifference to protecting Tibet’s natural resources. It also raises serious concerns about the impact on the livelihoods of Tibetans, whose environment is being irreparably harmed by mining activities. Despite repeated efforts by Tsowo and the local community to appeal to preserve their river and ecosystem, the government appears uninterested in addressing the damage.[25]
Conclusion
With the expansion of mining in Tibet, Tibetans have to suffer from all the costs and impacts created by mining. At the same time, China monopolizes the wealth and profits from the extracted resources.
China shows no interest in supporting Tibet and its ecology; instead, they find it more convenient to blame everything on Tibetans. Their focus is dragging Tibetans into every environmental degradation they have caused while they do their best to cover up their failed policies.
For many years, China wanted to bring modernity to Tibet, and to achieve that, they claim to have accelerated mining in the region. Now, they have found another excuse to intensify lithium mining in Tibet. While hiding all the challenges Tibetans are facing, they are proudly proclaiming themselves a storehouse of renewable energy for environmental conservation.
Instead of improving the space for mining to be practiced in a better way, with transparency and eco-friendliness, they are more focused on how to relocate Tibetans and grab the land. Until now, with or without Tibetan volunteers, China has accused Tibetans of voluntary migration. They have used ecological migrants as a tool to forcefully relocate Tibetans from their land and to meet their demand for mining.
To protect the environment, government efforts alone are not sufficient; it is crucial to involve the knowledge of Indigenous peoples. In Tibet, for example, traditional Tibetan knowledge has often been regarded as backward, leaving communities with no say in environmental projects that affect them. If they express any disagreement with government projects, they may face severe repercussions such as imprisonment. Therefore, it is essential to have voices from Tibetans. This is their right, and their rights shouldn’t be taken away from them.
References;
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[2]Tibet 2000: Environment and Development Issues, https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Tibet_2000.html?id=gKXsAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y
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[4] Spoiling Tibet: China and Resource Nationalism on the Roof of the World, Gabriel Lafitte, 12 September 2013, https://www.amazon.in/Spoiling-Tibet-Resource-Nationalism-Arguments/dp/1780324359
[5] China’s Railway Project: Where will it take Tibet?, Environment and Development Desk
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[6] Wenqing Ding, Lin Ding, Qingting, Jinxiang Li, and Liyun Zhang, Lithium-Rich Pegmatite Detection Integrating High-Resolution and Hyperspectral Satellite Data in Zhawulong Area, Western Sichuan, China, 10 August 2023 https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/15/16/3969
[7] CHINA’S MONOPOLY OVER LITHIUM’S UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM SUPPLY CHAIN
[8] Tibet a new frontline of ‘white gold rush’ in global race for renewable energy, November 1, 2023,
Turquoise Roof
[9] Qingkuan Li, Qishun Fan, Jianping Wang, Zhanjie Qin, Xiangru Zhang, Haicheng Wei, Yongsheng Du, Fashou Shan, Hydrochemistry, Distribution, and Formation of Lithium-Rich Brines in Salt Lakes on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau,30 August 2019
[10] China’s largest lithium extraction project enters trial operation, Global Times, Aug 17, 2021, https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202108/1231681.shtml
[11] TIBET, A NEW FRONTLINE OF ‘WHITE GOLD RUSH’ IN GLOBAL RACE FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY, October 2023, Gabriel Lafitte
[12] China discovers 1-million-ton lithium mine, largest in Asia, Global Times, Jan 18, 2024
[13] https://www.zijinmining.com/global/program-detail-71785.htm, Lakkor Tso Lithium Project
[14] HOT ROCKS, Rukor, 5 November 2023https://rukor.org/hot-rocks/
[15] Taming the Drichu: China’s Derge Dam Threatens Tibetan Culture and Communities, July 1, 2024, International Campaign for Tibet
[16] https://en.tibettimes.net/2024/04/10/sacred-snow-mountain-amne-machen-is-melting-fast-yet-mining-around-its-ranges-increasing/, Tibet Times
[17] Danielle Ranucci, human rights foundation, undermined: China’s growing presence in Tibetan Mining, https://hrf.org/undermined-chinas-growing-presence-in-tibetan-mining/
[18] Qinghai-Tibet Plateau better protected by law, 2023-09-01, The National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China, https://subsites.chinadaily.com.cn/npc/2023-09/01/c_917283.htm
[19] Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Ecological Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China, April 26, 2023, http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/c2/c30834/202304/t20230426_429053.html
[20] The Indigenous World 2024: China, International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, https://www.iwgia.org/en/china.html
[21] China’s New “Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Ecological Protection Law”: A threat to Tibet’s Environment, Dechen Palmo, March 27, 2024, https://tibetpolicy.net/chinas-new-qinghai-tibet-plateau-ecological-protection-law-a-threat-to-tibets-environment/
[22] Spoiling Tibet China and Resource Nationalism on the Roof of the World, Gabriel Lafitte, 12 September 2013, https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Spoiling_Tibet/XP00EAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0
[23] Spoiling Tibet: China and Resource Nationalism on the Roof of the World, Gabriel Lafitte, The China Journal, Published By: The University of Chicago Press, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/679183
[24] Tibetan urges government to restore river ecosystem, Free Tibet, 21/10/2024, https://freetibet.org/latest/tibetan-urges-government-to-restore-river-ecosystem/
[25] Tibetan whistleblower jailed for exposing illegal mining on social media, Tibet Watch, November 29, 2024, https://www.tibetwatch.org/news/2024/11/29/tibetan-whistleblower-jailed-for-exposing-illegal-mining-on-social-media